Psychological Theories
Introduction
The purpose of this professional development experience is to explain the fundamental ideas of cognition: Cognitive load, effectiveness of multimedia on learning, and conceptual change. A video will be provided to exemplify how multimedia can be used to promote effective teaching/learning.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this course, at least 80% of participants in this professional development site will be able to:
1. Define major concepts of Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1994).
2. Define major concepts of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996).
3. Recognize three out of 12 principles of multimedia learning (Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996).
4. Define conceptual change (Posner, Strike, Hewson & Gertzog, 1982) and components of refutation text (Tippett, 2010).
3. Observe how psychological theory can be used to design genetic understanding of albinism among online RN-BSN students.
1. Define major concepts of Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1994).
2. Define major concepts of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996).
3. Recognize three out of 12 principles of multimedia learning (Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996).
4. Define conceptual change (Posner, Strike, Hewson & Gertzog, 1982) and components of refutation text (Tippett, 2010).
3. Observe how psychological theory can be used to design genetic understanding of albinism among online RN-BSN students.
Cognitive Load Theory
Theoretical Stance
Sweller's (1994) Cognitive Load Theory describes how knowledge is brought into our brains, processed and stored.
Cognitive Load Theory, proposes that the human brain consists of a working memory and a long-term memory. and that information must be processed in the working memory before it is transferred in to the long term memory. The effort of transferring information from the working to the long-term memory is referred to as cognitive load.
Learning is defined as the movement of bringing information into storage, processing it and transferring it into the long-term memory.
Cognitive Load Theory, proposes that the human brain consists of a working memory and a long-term memory. and that information must be processed in the working memory before it is transferred in to the long term memory. The effort of transferring information from the working to the long-term memory is referred to as cognitive load.
Learning is defined as the movement of bringing information into storage, processing it and transferring it into the long-term memory.
Cerebral Architecture
According to Cognitive Load Theory, human brains are comprised of: (a) two categories for knowledge processing which represent knowledge that cannot be taught (biological primary) and knowledge that can be deliberately learned or explicitly taught (biological secondary); (b) subcategory units to warehouse levels of information being processed (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane); and, (c) schemas, or neuronal transmittal connectivity pathways supporting an infinite number of possibilities. We manipulate secondary information to impact learning.
Intrinsic loads are not alterable and needed for building long term memory. Extraneous loads are irrelevant to learning and overload the working memory, can erroneously influence proper construction of long-term memory. Germane loads are relevant to schema construction, support and contribute to learning.
The long-term memory is comprised of schema construction and schema automation, each influence action and story information. The complexity of processing of information between memories as a function of the schema.
Five Principles of Cognitive Load Theory
Five principles describe how cerebral architecture explains how learning occurs.
1. The information store principle maintains that the primary aim of instruction is to appropriately alter the long-term memory’s storage of new (secondary biological) information (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
2. The borrowing and reorganizing principle asserts that humans acquire information from other people and combine that information with existing stored data to alter long-term memory (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
3. The randomness of genesis principle explains that for information to be transferred into the long-term memory, it must be stored in the working memory for processing into novel information (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
4. The narrow limits of change principle indicates that the brain works to reduce the amount of information into functional chunks (maximum capacity of seven novel elements) that can be converted into functional and meaningful long-term use (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
5. The environmental organizing and linking principle claims postulates that information in the external environment must be reconciled with information stores to validate appropriate (safe) action (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
1. The information store principle maintains that the primary aim of instruction is to appropriately alter the long-term memory’s storage of new (secondary biological) information (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
2. The borrowing and reorganizing principle asserts that humans acquire information from other people and combine that information with existing stored data to alter long-term memory (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
3. The randomness of genesis principle explains that for information to be transferred into the long-term memory, it must be stored in the working memory for processing into novel information (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
4. The narrow limits of change principle indicates that the brain works to reduce the amount of information into functional chunks (maximum capacity of seven novel elements) that can be converted into functional and meaningful long-term use (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
5. The environmental organizing and linking principle claims postulates that information in the external environment must be reconciled with information stores to validate appropriate (safe) action (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Theoretical Stance
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning builds from Sweller's (1994) Cognitive Load Theory (Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, and Tapangco, 1996).
It proposes, one modality principle, that learning occurs for deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. Research supports this principle reports with up to a 1.5 effect size (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
According to Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, and Tapangco (1996) Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning assumes three conditions:
1. Auditory and visual (two) channels process new information;
2. Both channels have limited capacity for processing information; and,
3. The processing of new information involves filtering, selecting, organizing and integrating all of which must occur for learning to take place.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning holds that instructional messages can be tested to determine effectiveness of learning. The first means of assessment is for retention and the second more highly valid assessment is that of instructional message transference of information to solve new problems that are ideally based on real world scenarios (Mayer, 2014). Good teaching-learning outcomes are considered “meaningful” learning which occurs with high cognitive and behavioral activities and are evidenced by integrated knowledge and good retention and transference test scores (Mayer, 2014).
It proposes, one modality principle, that learning occurs for deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. Research supports this principle reports with up to a 1.5 effect size (Paas & Sweller, 2014).
According to Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, and Tapangco (1996) Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning assumes three conditions:
1. Auditory and visual (two) channels process new information;
2. Both channels have limited capacity for processing information; and,
3. The processing of new information involves filtering, selecting, organizing and integrating all of which must occur for learning to take place.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning holds that instructional messages can be tested to determine effectiveness of learning. The first means of assessment is for retention and the second more highly valid assessment is that of instructional message transference of information to solve new problems that are ideally based on real world scenarios (Mayer, 2014). Good teaching-learning outcomes are considered “meaningful” learning which occurs with high cognitive and behavioral activities and are evidenced by integrated knowledge and good retention and transference test scores (Mayer, 2014).
Cerebral Architecture
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning maintains that the brain is comprised of three memories: the sensory, the working and the long-term. Mayer (2014) explained that words and pictures can be processed in about 20 seconds then the working memory filters, selects, organizes and integrates chunks of information in to the the long-term memory. The information is compared to prior learned knowledge before reconstructing a new mental image. Cognitive load during multimedia learning is explained by an additive effect of three demands on capacity (extraneous, essential and generative processing). Respectively these demands are analogous to the extraneous, intrinsic and germane loads described in Cognitive Load Theory.
Principles of Multimedia Learning
The Twelve Principles of Multimedia Learning
According to Mayer (2014), twelve principles should guide instructional design. The overall goals of instruction are to reduce the additive effect of overload by minimizing extraneous data, managing essential processing (working load) and fostering generative processing (long-term transference). Each principle is based in evidence. Three principles (Coherence, Signaling and Temporal Contiguity) will be highlighted below.
1) Coherence Principle explains that learning is improved when extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded rather than included.
2) Signaling Principle states that learning is improved when cues that highlight the organization of the essential material are added.
3) Redundancy Principle describes that learning is improved from graphics and narration than from graphics, narration and on-screen text.
4) Spatial Contiguity Principle claims that learning is improved when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far away from each other on the page or screen.
5) Temporal Contiguity Principle asserts that learning is improved when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.
6) Segmenting Principle claims that learning is improved when a multimedia lesson is presented in self-paced segments rather than as one continuous unit.
7. Pre-training Principle explains that learning is improved when students understand main concepts.
8. Modality Principle states that learning is improved from graphics and text than from
animation and on-screen text.
9. Multimedia Principle explains that learning is improved with words and pictures than from only words
10. Personalization Principle indicates that learning is improved when words are used in conversational style rather than formal style.
11. Voice Principle explains that learning is improved when narration in multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice rather than a machine voice.
12. Image Principle explains that learning is improved when the teacher's image is added to the screen.
1) Coherence Principle explains that learning is improved when extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded rather than included.
2) Signaling Principle states that learning is improved when cues that highlight the organization of the essential material are added.
3) Redundancy Principle describes that learning is improved from graphics and narration than from graphics, narration and on-screen text.
4) Spatial Contiguity Principle claims that learning is improved when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far away from each other on the page or screen.
5) Temporal Contiguity Principle asserts that learning is improved when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.
6) Segmenting Principle claims that learning is improved when a multimedia lesson is presented in self-paced segments rather than as one continuous unit.
7. Pre-training Principle explains that learning is improved when students understand main concepts.
8. Modality Principle states that learning is improved from graphics and text than from
animation and on-screen text.
9. Multimedia Principle explains that learning is improved with words and pictures than from only words
10. Personalization Principle indicates that learning is improved when words are used in conversational style rather than formal style.
11. Voice Principle explains that learning is improved when narration in multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice rather than a machine voice.
12. Image Principle explains that learning is improved when the teacher's image is added to the screen.
Temporal Contiguity Principle
The Temporal Contiguity Principle which asserts that learning is better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively, facilitates sensory processing through times presentation. Evidence supporting Temporal Contiguity Principle reflects 9 studies carried out between 1991 and 2008, demonstrating a strong median effect size of 1.2 (Mayer, 2014).
Coherence Principle
The Coherence Principle states that learning is better when extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded rather than included. The Coherence Principle facilitates sensory processing by directing selection. Evidence supporting the Coherence Principle reflects 23 studies carried out between 1996 and 2008, demonstrating a strong median effect size of 0.86 (Mayer, 2014).
Signaling Principle
Signaling Principle suggests that learning is better when cues highlighting the organization of the essential material are added. Signaling facilitates the selection phase. Cues can be arrows or bold print to help learners focus on relevant information. Evidence supporting the Signaling Principle reflects 28 studies carried out between 1997 and 2013, demonstrating a low median effect size of 0.41 (Mayer, 2014).
Concept Change and Refutation Text
Conceptual change is a process of restructuring stored information (Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982). Refutation is a technique for implementing conceptual change (Tippett, 2010). Eduation experts assert that whenever new knowledge appears, prior knowledge must be relearned, built upon or restructured. Antecedent to conceptual change are four conditions:
1) Prior knowledge no longer solves problems,
2) New information has to be understandable,
3) New information must be plausible for problem resolution
4) New information must be valuable to the user.
The consequence of conceptual change is problem resolution.
Refutation text employs the use of three components to advance a conceptual change:
1) A misconception
2) A cue
3) A solution
1) Prior knowledge no longer solves problems,
2) New information has to be understandable,
3) New information must be plausible for problem resolution
4) New information must be valuable to the user.
The consequence of conceptual change is problem resolution.
Refutation text employs the use of three components to advance a conceptual change:
1) A misconception
2) A cue
3) A solution
Instructional Video
The video below explains Cognitive Load Theory, Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, Three Principles of Multimedia Learning, Concept change and Refutation. It also provides picture in picture formatting and a screen capture highlighting how three principles and refutation can be used to increase RN-BSN student understanding of albinism.
Formative Assessment
References
- Mayer, R. E., Bove, W., Bryman, A., Mars, R., & Tapangco, L. (1996). When less is more: Meaningful learning from visual and verbal summaries of science textbook lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 64-73.
- Mayer, R.E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In Mayer, R.E. (2nd Eds.). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. pp. 43-71. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Paas, F. & Sweller, J. (2014). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In Mayer, R.E. (2nd Eds.). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. pp. 27-41. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conceptions: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66(2), 211-227.
- Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and instruction, 4(4), 295-312.
- Tippett, C. D. (2010). Refutation text in science education: A review of two decades of research. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 8, 951-970.